What are the effect of unemployment ?

  1. Unemployment leads to wastage of manpower resource.
  2. People who are an asset for the country turn into a liability.
  3. There is a feeling of helpless and despair among the youth.
  4. People do not have enough money to support their family.
  5. The dependence of employed on the working population increases.
  6. The quality of life of an individual as well as the society is negatively affected.
  7. In conditions of bare subsistence there is a general decline in health status and increased dropouts from school.
  8. Unemployment has detrimental impact on the overall growth of an economy.

रोचक तथ्य 35+ lines

अंतरिक्ष में मौजूद कचरे का एक टुकड़ा हर दिन पृथ्वी पर गिरता है , यह अनुमान नासा के वैज्ञानिकों ने लगाया है ।

एक घन्टे की डरावनी फ़िल्म देखने से 30 मिनट तक पैदल चलने के बराबर कैलोरी जल जाती है ।

संतरा आँखों के लिए बहुत ही गुणकारी होता है । संतरे में विटामिन भरपूर मात्रा में होता है जो आँखों की ज्योति बढ़ाने में सहायक होता हैं ।

जितने आप अपने कामो को करने के लिए कठोर रहेंगे उतनी ही आपकी जिंदगी आसान होगी  और जितना अधिक आप अपने कामों को टालते जाएगे उतनी ही ज़िन्दगी कठोर होती चली जाएगी ।

पेन्सिल के शार्पनर का अविष्कार 1928 में बनार्ड लेसिमोरे ने किया था ।

नींद न आना और सिरदर्द का कारण मोबाइल फ़ोन की रेडिएशन भी है ।

अंतरिक्ष में जाने वाली पहली पेय पदार्थ कोका कोला था ।
कई बार ये होता हैं कि कोई गाना हमारे दिमाग में बैठ जाता हैं और पूरा दिन उसे ही गुनगुनाते रहते है इसे “ Earworm " कहते हैं ।

दुनिया की सबसे लंबी वेल मछली 60 फीट , वजन तकरीबन 25 टन और 4000 दांत हैं ।

संसद भवन की नींव की पहली ईंट 12 फरवरी 1921 में रखी गयी थी , इसके निर्माण में 6 साल और 83 लाख रुपए का खर्च आया था ।

एक शुतुरमुर्ग की आंखें उसके दिमाग से बड़ी होती हैं ।

मेघालय में एक नदी है ' उमंगोट नदी ' , जिसे भारत की सबसे साफ नदी कहा जाता है । यह नदी मावल्यान्नांग गांव के पास है , जिसे एशिया का सबसे स्वच्छ गांव कहा जाता है । गांव में करीब 300 घर हैं और सभी मिलकर इस नदी की साफ - सफाई करते हैं । सबसे खास बात ये है कि इस नदी में गंदगी फैलाने पर लोगों से 5000 रुपये तक का जुर्माना वसूला जाता है ।

एक सर्वे के अनुसार भारतीय लोग यात्रा सिर्फ सोशल स्टेटस और दिखावे के लिए करते है ना की जगह घूमने की इच्छा की वजह से ।

आयुर्वेद के अनुसार , तुलसी के नियमित सेवन से व्यक्ति के विचार में पवित्रता , मन में एकाग्रता आती है और क्रोध पर नियंत्रण होने लगता है . आलस्य दूर हो जाता है . शरीर में दिन भर स्फूर्ति बनी रहती है . इसके बारे में यहां तक कहा गया है कि औषधीय गुणों की दृष्टि से यह संजीवनी बूटी के समान है ।

शोध के मुताबिक अगर आप मुस्कुरा रहे हैं तो आप मेकअप के मुकाबले 70 प्रतिशत ज्यादा आकर्षक लग रहे होते हैं ।

भारत के सबसे पढ़े - लिखे ब्यक्ति का नाम है " श्रीकांत जिचकर " । इनके पास कुल 20 डिग्रियां थी जिसमे से IPS , IAS , डॉक्टरेट , वकील आदि प्रमुख थी । इनका निधन संन 2004 में हुआ था ।

चंद्रशेखर आजाद अपने साथ हमेशा एक माउज़र रखते थे । ये पिस्टल आज भी इलाहाबाद के म्यूजियम में रखी हुई है ।

एक अध्ययन में पाया गया है की अगर कोई व्यक्ति फ्री बैठा है और उसके सामने कोई मोबाइल यूज करे तो 90 % उसका भी मन अपने मोबाइल को चेक करने के लिए आकर्षित होगा ।

खाली पेट पानी पीने से शरीर का मेटाबोलिज्म रेट 24 % तक बढ़ जाता हैं । इसका अर्थ यह हुआ की आप आसानी के साथ खाने को जल्दी से हजम कर पायेंगे , साथ ही वजन कम करने में भी आसानी होती है ।

खुशी का पहला आंसू दाहिनी आँख से और दुख का पहला आंसू बाईं आँख से निकलता हैं।

सोने से पहले आप जिस आदमी के बारे में सोचते हैं वही आपकी खुशी और दर्द का कारण हैं ।

ऑस्ट्रेलिया के विक्टोरिया नामक शहर में - आप खुद अपने घर का बल्व नहीं बदल सकते इसके लिए आपको किसी इलेक्ट्रिशियन को बुलाना होगा ।

क्या आपको पता है कि 1950 के दशक के दौरान अमेरिका ने परमाणु बम से चंद्रमा को उड़ाने की योजना बनाई थी ।

अजीब शब्द है " SORRY " इंसान कहे , तो झगड़ा खत्म ! डॉक्टर कहे , तो इंसान ख़तम !

अगर हम किसी car से 95 किलोमीटर प्रतिघंटा की रफ़्तार से चाँद की और जाना सुरु कर दे , तो हमें चाँद पर पहुंचने में 168 दिन लगेंगे ।

अगर किसी संख्या को 9 से गुणा किया जाए तो परिणाम के सभी अंको का योगफल 9 ही होगा उदाहरण स्वरूप 345 * 9 = 3105 और इन अंकों का योगफल भी 3 + 1 + 0 + 5 = 9 है ।

हमारे शरीर में 1 % पानी की कमी होते ही प्यास लगने लगती है और जब यह कमी 10 % हो जाती है तब मौत हो जाती है ।

OK " शब्द की खोज 1839 में हुई थी . जब एक न्यूज़पेपर ने मजाक - मजाक में OII Korrect को ok लिख दिया था . दरअसल , उस समय गलत स्पेलिंग लिखने का फैशन था और लोग AII Correct की जगह OII Korrect लिख रहे थे यही से OK शब्द बना ।

क्रिस गेल , पहले टेस्ट की पहली गेंद पर छक्का मारने वाले एकमात्र बल्लेबाज है।

मोर पानी में तुरंत डूब जाएगा क्योंकि यह तैर नहीं सकता ऐसा इसलिए क्योंकि इनके पास झल्लीदार पैर नहीं होते हैं।

अगर कोई आप की तरफ घूर रहा हो तो आप को खुद एहसास हो जाता है चाहे आप नींद में ही क्यों ना हो ।

हम बिना खाए 2 महीने रह सकते हैं , लेकिन बिना सोए केवल 11 दिन तक जीवित रह सकते हैं इसके बाद मौत भी हो सकती है ।

क्या आप जानते हैं कि एक मां हर हफ्ते लगभग 14 घंटे केवल हमारे लिए खाना बनाने में ही बिता देती है।

80 % लोग अपनी भावनाओं को अपने पास रखते हैं क्योंकि उनको लगता है कि दूसरे लोग उनकी भावना को नहीं समझ पाएंगे ।

दुनिया की सबसे लंबी मूंछे भारत के राम सिंह चौहान ( 4 . 29 m ) की है ।

अंतरिक्ष में मौजूद कचरे का एक टुकड़ा हर दिन पृथ्वी पर गिरता है , यह अनुमान नासा के वैज्ञानिकों ने लगाया है ।

Breathing and bathing



 In this post we will read about


  • Breathing
  • Blowing
  • Cold and hot action of blowing 
  • Blowing on fire


life depends on Oxygen gas present in air. Oxygen plays an important role of releasing energy from the food inside the food body. This energy is used by our body for performing its various function the process after taking oxygen from the air and giving out carbon dioxide from the body is done by breathing.



Breathing :- 

Process of inhalation and exhalation of air is called breathing. Breathing is a very slow process and it is difficult to notice the breathing of another person. The activity of breathing is performed by our nose and lungs. The process of breathing in is called in inhaling and the process of breathing outside is called exhaling. We breathe in, the year inter throughout our lungs and in flood the lungs. With this action our chest expands. When we breathe out the air comes out of our lungs. With this action Kama our chest contracts. Normally a person breathes for 12 -15 times in a minute. On running the breathing activity gets faster and a person breathes for about 60 times in a minute. One can easily notice such a fast breathing action of another person.
We we are also breathe sometimes with this action, the air is filled in the lungs to the their full capacity. The chest is also expended to its full capacity.

Blowing:-

Blowing is an action in which a person sends out a stream of air from mouth. In simple words, it refers to the fast exhaling of air. All of us make use of blowing action for different seasons. Putting off candle is one common example. Whistling sound is also made by a blowing action. Balloons are filled with air by blowing action. Children dry their paintings, with blowing action. Children also enjoy making bubbles of soap water, they do it with gentle blowing action. Parents after blow on the bruises of children because it gives some relief from the pain of bruises.

 Cold And Hot Action of Blowing

May perform hot as well as cold action when we blow, air is exhaled out. Its temperature remains same whether we blow it on hot surface or cold surface. During winters, our skin gets colder. People often blow out on their hands in order to warm them/The hands become warm because air that we blow out is warmer than the cold surface.
 On the other hand, people also blow to make the tea cold, It is because the tea is very hot. The air that we blow on it is colds than the hot tea. It makes the tea colder. 

Blowing on fire

Blowing on fire brings different results. We blow on a burning candle to put it off. Blowing of candles is common scene at any birthday party. We also blow on burning wood to keep the fire going these are different reasons for this A candle burns at a particular temperature called ignition temperature. This ignition temperature lowers when we blow air on it. It puts off the candle. But we blow air on burning wood, we are pushing atmospheric air towards burning wood. This air contains oxygen which helps in burning. It keeps the fire going. In villages, ladies make use of a pipe to blow on fit for cooking.

अलंकार की परिभाषा और उसके प्रकार उदाहरण सहित । alankar in hindi with examples

अलंकार के भेद प्रकार की परिभाषा उदाहरण सहित


अलंकार के मुख्य भेद अलंकारों के मुख्यतः तीन वर्ग किए गए हैं -
( 1 ) शब्दालंकार ( 2 ) अर्थालंकार ( 3 ) उभयालकार । । इन्हीं तीन वर्गों के आधार पर अलंकारों का अध्ययन होता है ।

शब्दालंकार शब्द  के दो रूप हैं - ध्वनि और अर्थ । ध्वनि के आधार पर शब्दालंकार की सृष्टि होती है । इस अलंकार में वर्ण या शब्दों की लयात्मकता या संगीतात्मकता होती है , अर्थ का चमत्कार नहीं । शब्दालंकार
( 1 ) कुछ वर्णगत , ( 2 ) कुछ शब्दगत और ( 3 ) कुछ वाक्यगत होते हैं । अनुप्रास , यमक आदि अलंकार वर्णगत और शब्दगत हैं तो लाटानुप्रास वाक्यगत । प्रमुख शब्दालंकार ये हैं - अनुप्रास , यमक , पुनरुक्ति , पुनरुक्तवदाभास , वीप्सा , वक्रोक्ति , श्लेष आदि ।

 अर्थालंकार - अर्थ को चमत्कृत या अलंकृत करने वाले अलंकार अर्थालंकार हैं । जिस शब्द से जो अर्थालंकार सधता है , उस शब्द के स्थान पर दूसरा पर्याय रख देने पर भी वही अलंकार सधेगा , क्योंकि इस जाति के अलंकारों का संबंध शब्द से न होकर अर्थ से होता है । केशव ( 1600 ई० ) ने ' कविप्रिया ' में दंडी ( 700 ई . ) के आदर्श पर 35 अर्थालंकार गिनाए हैं । जसवंतसिंह ( 1643 ई० ) ने ' भाषाभूषण ' में 101 अर्थालंकारों की चर्चा की है । दलह ( 1743 ई . ) के ' कवि - कुलकंठाभरण ' , जयदेव ( 13वीं शताब्दी ) के ' चंद्रलोक ' और अप्पय दीक्षित ( 17वीं शताब्दी ) के ' कुवलयानंद ' में 115 अर्थालंकारों का विवेचन है ।

उभयालंकार - जो अलंकार शब्द और अर्थ दोनों पर आश्रित रहकर दोनों को चमत्कृत करते हैं , वे ' उभयालंकार ' कहलाते हैं । यहाँ हम पाठ्यक्रमानुसार सिर्फ निम्नलिखित अलंकार ही पढ़ेंगे : अनुप्रास , यमक , श्लेष , उपमा , रूपक , उत्प्रेक्षा , अतिशयोक्ति , मानवीकरण ।


1.  अनुप्रास: जहाँ किसी वर्ण की एक से अधिक बार आवत्ति हो , यहाँ अनप्रास अलंकार होता है ;
 जैसे
( क ) रघुपति राघव राजा राम । ( ' र ' वर्ण की आवृत्ति )
( ख ) मुदित महीपति मंदिर आए । ( ' म ' वर्ण की आवृत्ति )
( ग ) तरणि तनुजा तट तमाल तरुवर बहुछाए । ( ' त ' वर्ण की आवृत्ति )
( घ ) विमल वाणी ने वीणा ली कमल कोमल कर में सप्रीत । ( ' व ' और ' क ' वर्ण की आवृत्ति )
( ङ ) सुरभित सुंदर सुखद सुमन तुझ पर खिलते हैं । ( ' स ' वर्ण की आवृत्ति ) ।

2 . यमक : जहाँ एक शब्द दो या दो से अधिक बार आए तथा उनके अर्थ भिन्न हों , वहाँ ' यमक अलंकार ' होता है ।
जैसे
( क ) कहै कवि बेनी बेनी ब्याल की चुराय लीन्ही रति रति सोभा ( शोभा ) सब रति के सरीर की । ( ' बेनी ' तथा ' रति ' शब्दों के अर्थ भिन्न - भिन्न है । बेनी - कवि का नाम , बेनी - चोटी , रति - जरा . जरा - सी . रति - कामदेव की पत्नी )

( ख ) तीन बेर खाती थीं वे तीन बेर खाती हैं । ( ' तीन बेर ' के अलग - अलग अर्थ हैं ) तीन बेर - तीन बार ; तीन बेर - बेर नामक फलों की तीन संख्या ।

( ग ) कनक - कनक ते सौ गुनी मादकता अधिकाय इहि खाए बौरात जग उहि पाए बौरात । ( ' कनक ' शब्दों के दो अलग - अलग अर्थ हैं : कनक - धतूरा ; कनक - सोना )

( घ ) करका मनका डार दे मन का मनका फेर । ( मनका - शब्दों के दो अलग - अलग अर्थ हैं : मनका दाना , मनका हृदय का )

 3.श्लेष :- जहाँ एक शब्द एक ही बार प्रयोग किया गया हो , पर उसके अर्थ एक से अधिक हो : जैसे
( क ) सुबरन को ढूँढत फिरत कवि , व्यभिचारी , चोर ( सुबरन ' शब्द के तीन अर्थ हैं - अच्छे शब्द , संदर रंग - रूप , सोना )

( ख ) जो रहीम गति दीप की कुल कपूत गति सोय । बारे उजियारो करै , बढ़े अधेरो होय । । ( ' बारे ' और ' बढ़े ' - शब्दों के दो - दो अर्थ है ) ( बारे बचपन में ; जलाने पर ; बढ़े - बड़ा होने पर , बुझने पर ) ।

( ग ) पानी गए न ऊबरै मोती , मानुस , चून । ( पानी मोती के साथ ' चमक ' ; मनुष्य के साथ ' प्रतिष्ठा ' और चूर्ण ( आटे ) के साथ ' जल ' । ।

4 . उपमा : अत्यधिक समानता के कारण सर्वथा भिन्न होते हुए भी जहाँ एक वस्त या प्राणी किसी प्रसिद्ध वस्तु या प्राणी से की जाती है , वहाँ ' उपमा ' अलंकार होता है । उपमा अ होते हैं :
( क ) " उपमेय ' - जिसकी तुलना की जाए ।
( ख ) ' उपमान ' - जिससे तुलना की जाए ।
( ग ) ' साधारण धर्म ' - दोनों का वह गुण या विशेषता ।

( घ ) ' वाचक शब्द ' - जिस शब्द की सहायता से तुलना की जाए ; जैसे
 ' राधा का मुख चंद्र के समान सुंदर है । ' यहाँ राधा का मुख - उपमेय है । चंद्रमा - उपमान है । सुंदर साधारण धर्म है । समान वाचक शब्द है ।
 उदहारण

 ( क) मखमल से झूले पड़े हाथी - सा टीला ( यहाँ टीला - उपमेय है , हाथी - उपमान है , ' सा ' - वाचक शब्द है । इस पंक्ति में साधारण धर्म लुप्त है । )

 ( ख ) प्रात नभ था बहुत नीला शंख ; जैसे . . . ( नभ - उपमेय , शंख - उपमान , नीला - साधारण धर्म , जैसे - वाचक शब्द )

( ग ) हरिपद कोमल कमल से । ( हरिपद - उपमेय , कोमल - साधारण धर्म , कमल - उपमान , से - वाचक शब्द )

 ( घ ) यह देखिए अरविंद से शिशुवृंद कैसे सो रहे
( शिशुवृंद - उपमेय , अरविंद - उपमान , से - वाचक शब्द )

 5 . रूपक : जहाँ गुण की अत्यधिक समानता के कारण उपमेय में ही उपमान का अभेद आरोप कर दिया गया हो , वहाँ ' रूपक अलंकार ' होता है , अर्थात् उपमेय और उपमान को एक कर दिया गया हो ; जैसे

( क ) मैया मैं तो चंद्र - खिलौना लैहों । ( चंद्र में खिलौने का आरोप कर दिया गया है । )

 ( ख ) चरण कमल बंदौं हरिराई । ( हरि के चरणों में ' कमल ' का आरोप है । )

 ( ग ) उदित उदयगिरिमंच पर रघुवर बाल पतंग ।
 विकसे संत सरोज सब , हरषे लोचन शृंग । । 

( यहाँ उदयगिरि पर मंच का , रघुवर पर बाल पतंग का , संतों पर सरोज ( कमल ) का और लोचनों ( नेत्रों ) पर भृगों ( भौंरों ) का आरोप है ।

( घ ) विज्ञान यान पर चढ़ी हुई सभ्यता डूबने जाती है । ( यहाँ विज्ञान पर ' यान ' का आरोप है । )

6 . उत्प्रेक्षा : जहाँ उपमेय में उपमान की संभावना या कल्पना कर ली गई हो , वहाँ ' उत्प्रेक्षा ' अलंकार होता है । उत्प्रेक्षा अलंकार में मनो , मनहु , जानो , जनह , जनों जैसे शब्दों का प्रयोग होता है । जैसे

( क ) उस का मारे क्रोध के तन काँपने लगा ।
 मानो हवा के वेग से सोता हुआ सागर जगा । 
( अर्जुन के क्रोध से काँपते शरीर में सागर के तुफ़ान की संभावना )

( ख ) कहती हुई यों उत्तरा के नेत्र जल से भर गए । हिम के कणों से पूर्ण मानो हो गए पंकज नए ।
 ( उत्तरा के अश्र पूर्ण नेत्रों में ओस - जल - कण यक्त पंकज की संभावना ) ।

( ग ) सोहत ओढ़े पीत पट , स्याम सलौने गात । मनहु नीलमणि सैल पर , आतप परयौ प्रभात ।
 ( कृष्ण के श्याम रंग के शरीर में नील मणि पर्वत की और उनके शरीर पर शोभित पीतांबर में प्रभात के सूर्य की धूप की संभावना )
 ( घ ) फूले कास सकल महि छाई । जनु वरसा रितु प्रकट बुढ़ाई । ।
 ( यहाँ वर्षा ऋतु के बाद शरद के आगमन का वर्णन हुआ है ) । 

7 . अतिशयोक्ति : जहाँ किसी गुण का इतना बढ़ा - चढ़ाकर वर्णन किया जाए कि लोक - सीमा का अतिक्रमण होने लगे , तो अतिशयोक्ति अलंकार होता है । जैसे

 ( क ) पानी परात को हाथ छुओ नहीं । नैनन के जल सों पग धोए । । यहाँ श्रीकृष्ण द्वारा अपने मित्र सुदामा के पैर अश्रुजल से धोने को लेकर लोक - सीमा का उल्लंघन किया गया है , अत : अतिशयोक्ति अलंकार है ।

 ( ख ) हनुमान की पूंछ में लग न पाई आग । ।
 सारी लंका जरि गई गए निसाचर भाग । ।
 यहाँ हनमान की पंछ जो लंका दहन का हेतु थी , में आग लगने से पहले ही सारी लंका का जल जाना वर्णित है । अत : अतिशयोक्ति अलंकार है ।

 8 . मानवीकरण : जहाँ जड़ पर चेतन का आरोप हो ; अर्थात् प्रकृति के जड़ तत्वों पर मानवीय भावनाओं का आरोप हो , वहाँ ' मानवीकरण ' अलंकार होता है ; जैसे 

( क ) अंबर पनघट में डुबो रही ताराघट उषा नागरी । ।
[उषा ( प्रातः काल की लाली ) पर नागरी ( चतुर स्त्री ) होने के कारण मानवीकरण अलंकार है ।]

 ( ख ) मेघ आए बन - ठन के संवर के । ( ' मेघ ' पर बन - ठन कर आने की क्रियाओं का आरोप )

 ( ग ) मेघमय आसमान से उतर रही संध्या सुंदरी परी - सी धीरे - धीरे । ( ' संध्या ' पर ' परी ' की मानवीय क्रियाओं का आरोप )
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Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

Points to Remember

1. Liberals
 (i) The liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions.
 (ii) Liberals also opposed uncontrolled power by dynasti rulers.
 (iii) They wanted to safeguard the rights of the individualk against governments.
 (iv) The argued for a representative elected Parliamentar i Government.
 (v) They favoured a well trained judiciary that was independent mi of rulers and officials.
 (vi) They were not democrats.
 (vii) They did not favour universal adult franchise.
 (viii) Liberals wanted that men of property only should have the right to vote.
 (ix) They did not want the voting right for women.

 2. Radicals
 (i) Radicals wanted a nation in which the government was based on the majority of a country's population.
 (ii) Radicals opposed the privileges of big landowners and wealthy factory owners.
(iii) They were not against the existence of private property be disliked concentration of property in the hands of a few.

3. Conservatives
 (i) They were opposed to radicals and liberals.
 i) After the French Revolution, the conservatives also opened their minds to the need for change.
 (iii) Earlier in the 18th century, conservatives had been opposed to the idea of change.
 (iv) By the 19th century, they accepted that some change was inevitable but believed that the past had to be respected and change had to be brought about through a slow process.

 4. Industrial Society and Social Change
 (i) New cities came up and new industrialised regions developed and railways expanded.
 (ii) Industrialisation brought-men, women and children to factories.
 (iii) Working hours were often long and wages poor.
 (iv) Unemployment was common.
 (v) Housing and sanitation problems were growing fast.
 (vi) Almost all industries were the property of individuals.
 (vii) The liberals and radicals wanted that the workforce should be educated and healthy.
 (viii) Many workers who wanted changes rallied around liberals and radicals.
 (ix) Some liberals and radicals wanted a revolution to put an end to the governments established in Europe in 1815.

 5. Nationalists
 Nationalists talked of revolutions that would create nations where all citizens would have equal rights.

 6. Coming of Socialism in Europe
 (i) Socialists
 (a) The socialists were against private property and as it as the root of all social evils of the time.
 (b) Socialists believed that if society as a whole rather than single individuals control property, more attention would be paid to collective social interests.

 (ii) Co-operatives
 (a) Some socialists believed in the idea of co-operatives.
 (b) Robert Owen sought to build a co-operative community called New Harmony in Indiana in USA.
 (c) Other socialists felt that co-operatives çould not be built on a wide scale only through individual initiative; they demanded that governments should encourage co-operatives.
 (d) In France, Louis Blanc wanted the government to co-operatives and replace capitalist enterprises.
 (e) The co-operatives were to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided the profit according to the work done by the members.

 7 Karl Marx
 (i) Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels added other ideas to the concept of co-operatives.
 (ii) Karl Marx felt that capitalists also took the share of proft which was due to the workers.
 (iii) He believed that workers should overthrow capitalism and the rule of private property.
 (iv) He believed that workers should free themselves from capitalist exploitation and construct a radically socialist state where all property was socially controlled i.e. communist society should be formed which was the society of the future.

 8. Spread of Socialism
 (i) By the 1870s, socialism spread through Europe. To co-ordinate their activities, socialists formed an international body called the Second International.
 (ii) Worker in England and Germany formed association to achieve better living and working conditions.
 (iii) Parties like the socialist party in France and the Labour Party in Britai were formed by socialists and trade unionists.

 9. The Russian Revolution
 (i) In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II, who ruled Russia, was autocratic.
 (ii). He levied heavy taxes on the peasants.
 (iii) He took Russia into the First World War and a larg number of Russian soldiers were killed.

 10. Economic and society in Russia
 (i) Peasants About 85 per cent of the Russian population earned their living from agriculture.
 (ii) Cultivators produced for the market and for themselves. (iii) They had to pay high taxes as land revenue.
(iv) They had to do free labour.
 (v) Their condition was very miserable.
 (vi) They seldom owned land.

 11. Industrial Workers
 (i) Industry was found in pockets. industries were the private.
(ii) Most industrialists.
(iii) Government supervised large factories to ensure minimum wages and limited hours of work, but rules were broken.
 (iv) Working hours in small workshops were sometimes 15 hours compared to 10-12 hours in factories.
 (v) Workers were divided into social groups divided by skills.
 (vi) Women made up 31 per cent of the factory labour force in 1914, but they were paid less than men.
(vii) Division among workers showed in their dress and manners too.
 (viii) Workers formed associations to help members in times of unemployment of financial hardships.
 (ix) They also united to strike work.
(x) They were paid low wages and their condition was miserable.

 12. Revolution of 1905
 (1) The year 1904 was a particularly bad one for the Russian workers. Prices of essential goods rose and real wages declined by 20 per cent.
(ii) Due to dismissal of four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers, a call for industrial action was given.
 (iii) 1,10,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike, demanding a reduction in the working day to eight hours and an increase in wages and improvement in working conditions.
13. Bloody Sunday
(1) When protesting workers led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace, it was attacked by the police.
(2) Over 100 workers were killed and about 300 wounded. This incident came to be known as 'Bloody Sunday'.
 (3) Strikes began, universities closed down and students staged walkouts.
(iv) This event is also known as the Revolution of 1905 because the Tsar agreed to give some concessions.

14. The Duma
 (1) During the Revolution of 1905, the Tsar allowed the formation of the Duma or an elected consultative Parliament.
 (2) Within 75 days the Duma was dismissed and the second Duma was reelected within three months.
 (iii) The Tsar did not want any challenge to his authority.
(iv) Liberals and revolutionaries were kept out of the Duma.

 15. Russian Revolution and the First World War
 (i) In Russia the war was initially popular and people supported Tsar Nicholas II.
(ii) He did not consult the Duma.
(iii) Anti German sentiments were high in Russia.
(iv) Russian armies suffered defeats and a large number of Russian soldiers were killed.
(v) Russian armies destroyed crops and buildings to prevent them from falling into enemy hands.
(vi) The Russian population wanted an end to the war but the Tsar did not agree.
(vii) The army did not want to fight the war.

16. Impact of the War
(i) Industries suffered a setback.
(ii) Railway lines began to break up.
(iii) Large supplies of grains were sent to feed the army.
(iv) There was shortage of grain and bread in the cities. Riots at bread shops became common.
(v) There were seven million casualities. (vi) People turned against the Tsar.

 17. The February Revolution
 (i) In February 1917, food shortages were deeply felt in the workers' quarters.
(ii) The winter was very cold with heavy snow Frost which made the life of workers very difficult.
(iii) On 22nd February, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank of the river Neva. Next day fifty factories called a strike.
(iv) In many places women led the strikes.
(v) Workers crossed the river and surrounded the government buildings. The Duma was suspended.
(vi) The cavalry was called out to control the workers, but it refused to fire on the workers.
(vii) The cavalry soldiers joined the workers and jointly formed a Soviet' or 'Council'. This was the Petrograd Soviet Petrograd Soviel.
(viii) The Tsar abdicated on the advice of the military commanders on 2nd March.
(ix) A provisional government was formed to run the country.
(x) The Petrograd Soviet had led the February Revolution that thebrought down the monarch (monarchy) in February 1917.

18. Aftermath of the February Revolution 
(i) Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from his exile in April.
(ii) Lenin put forward three demands which were called Lenin's April Theses', they were
(a) The war should be brought to a close.
(b) Land be transferred to the peasants.
(c) Banks be nationalised.

19. The Russian Revolution of October 1917 
(i) Conflict between the provisional government led by Kerenskii and the Bolsheviks grew.
(ii) The Bolsheviks under Leon Trotskii decided to seize power.
(iii) Prime Minister Kerenskii called the troops.
(iv) Military men loyal to the Bolsheviks went to take control of the telephone and telegraph offices.
(v) The ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace. By nightfall the city was under the control of Military Revolutionary Committee and the ministers surrendered. By December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow - Petrograd area.

20. Effects of the October Revolution 
(i) Most industries and banks were nationalised in November 1917.
(ii) Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
(iii) In the cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.
(iv) They banned the use of the old titles of aristocracy.
(v) New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
(vi) In 1918, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk and withdrew from the First World War.
(vii) Russia became a one party state and censorship was introduced.
(viii) Civil war took place in Russia between the supporters of the Bolsheviks and the non-Bolsheviks socialists, liberals and the suppourters of autocracy.

21. Making of a Socialist Society
(i) Banks and industries were kept nationalised.
(ii) Five Year Plans were introduced.
(iii) Stalin introduced collectivisation of agriculture; collective farms were introduced and profit was shared. Those who opposed collectivisation were punished.

22. Global Influence of Russian Revolution
(i) In many countries communist parties were formed.
(ii) Comintern, an organisation of socialists was formed.
(iii) By the 1950s, the Russian Government started losing support.
(iv) By the end of 20th century, socialism suffered a set back. When the Soviet Union was split into different countries.

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Wireless Transmission Media

Wireless transmission requires electromagnetic waves for the transmission of information over a distance. These waves or frequencies is measured in Hertz (Hz). Wireless media is also knowwn as unguided media. Communication is done by spreading signals in the air and those signals are received by antennae, They can be classified as:
 • Long distance wireless media
 • Short distance wireless media

 Long Distance Wireless Media

 It can support communication over a longer distance of up to thousands of kilometres. It includes the following:
 • Microwave
 • Radiowave
 • Satellite
 Microwave is a technique that uses wireless transmission of data. Microwaves are widely used for short point-to- point communication links. For long-distance communication, high towers are built, as the higher the tower, greater the range. Sometimes microwave towers are installed at the top of the houses to facilitate long-distance communication in short time.

 Radiowave is a communication system where data is transmitted using radio waves and energy travels through air rather than copper or glass. Radio waves are electromagnetic signals that are transmitted by broken into many bands including AM, FM, and VHF bands. Radio waves are omnidirectional, which means they can travel in all directions from the source.
 In satellite communication, satellite links are used to do wireless communication from one place on earth to another. Satellites are controlled by the Government. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennae on the earth. The antennae then capture those signals and process the information coming from those signals.

 Short Distance Wireless Media

 It can support communication within a limited range of a few meters to a few miles or kilometres. Wireless networks have become common. Following are the types of short distance wireless communications:
 Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) also known as Wireless LAN (WLAN). Wi-Fi networks are extremely limited in range.
 Bluetooth: Bluetooth forms Personal Area Network like connecting your mobile phone, laptops, digital cameras, etc.
 Wi-Max: Wi-Max stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. Wi-Max covers bigger range and creates network in Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). Examples are cable TV, DSL Internet connection.
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The human eye and it's parts class 8 CBSE topic wise note

The human eye is an organ which reacts to light for several purposes. As a conscious sense organ the eye allows vision. Rod and cone cells in the retina allows conscious light perception and vision including colour differentiation and the perception of depth. 



 Retina:

Retina is a light sensitive tissue lining the inner surface of the eye.


Rod cell:

Rods are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that can function in less intense light. They are of cylindrical shape and are almost responsible for night vision.


 Cone cells :

Cone cells are photoreceptors cells in the retina of the eye that are rêsponsible for colourvision.


 Cornea :

 The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil and anterior chamber.


 Pupil:

The pupil is a hole located in the centre of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the retina. It appears black because most of the light entering the pupil is absorbed by the tissues inside eye.


 Iris:

 The iris is thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupil and thus the amount of light reaching the retina.


 Lens:

The crystalline lens is a transparent, biconvex structure in the eye-that along with the cornea helps to refract light to be focused on the retina.

Aqueous humour:
The aqueous humour is a clear, gelatinous fluid similar to plasma but containing low protein concentration. It is located in the space between the lens and the cornea.


 Vitreous humour:

The vitreous humour is the transparent, colourless, gelatinous mass that fills the space between the lens of the eye and the retina lining the back of the eye.


 Optic nerve:

 The light sensitive nerve cells carry the impression to the brain by the means of the optic nerve.

FACT FILE:- The human eye can distinguish about 10 million colcurs.
The optic nerve, also called cranial nerve.